"White" or "albino" Dobermans are not actually white animals. They are a pale tan or cream color, and only the areas which would normally be rust-colored are actually white. Also, these Dobermans have blue eyes -- not pink or red eyes. Because these dogs are not white and because they have blue eyes, some people claim that they are not actually albino.

pigmented fur -- The problem here arises because of a confusion about terminology. As discussed above in the "what is albinism" section, the terms "albinism" and "albino" encompass a wide range of pigment disorders. Many albinos -- known as "partial" albinos or "tyrosinase-positive" albinos -- do have some pigment. There are human albinos that may have yellow or brown hair, and some that can even tan in the sun. There are also non-human albinos with some pigment, in several different species. For instance, the "chinchilla", "beige", "himalayan", "burmese", "cremello", and "mink" mutations in mammals such as mice, gerbils, rabbits, horses, and cats are all thought to be due to mutations in the "C" series of genes (the tyrosinase-producing genes), and can therefore be considered types of albinism.

For a chart of mouse color genetics look here.
For gerbil color genetics look here.
For rabbit color genetics look here.
For horse color genetics look here and here; also see further quotes concerning the cremello trait here
For cat color genetics look here and here.

In fact, most types of albinos do have some pigment. Only "complete" or "tyrosinase-negative" albinos have a complete lack of any pigment. But notice that even the albinos with some residual pigment, the "tyrosinase-positive" albinos, can accurately be called "albino" -- and the mutations producing these albinos are still generally affecting either the tyrosinase, or "C", gene, or sometimes the "P" gene see the "what is albinism" section above. The terms "albinistic" or "albinoid" can also be used, but "albino" is indeed an accurate term even if residual pigment is present.

freckles and moles -- Some people notice that their albino Dobermans have a few freckles and moles, and sometimes believe that the presence of these pigmented areas provides an argument against albinism. However, this is not the case. In fact, pigmented freckles and moles (also referred to as nevi and lentigines) are very common in some types of albinism.

From the International Albinism Center site:

"An important distinguishing characteristic of OCA1 is the presence of marked hypopigmentation at birth. Most individuals affected with a type of OCA1 have white hair, milky white skin, and blue eyes at birth. The irides can be very light blue and translucent such that the whole iris appears pink or red in ambient or bright light. During the first and second decade of life, the irides usually become a darker blue and may remain translucent or become lightly pigmented with reduced translucency. The skin remains white or appears to have more color with time. Sun exposure produces erythema and a burn if the skin has little pigment and is unprotected, but may tan well if cutaneous pigment has developed. Pigmented lesions (nevi, freckles, lentigines) develop in the skin of individuals who have developed pigmented hair and skin. "

"OCA1B is produced by mutations of the tyrosinase gene that result in enzyme with some residual or "leaky" activity. The variation in the pigmentation in individuals with OCA1B is wide from very little cutaneous pigment to nearly normal skin and hair pigment. Mutations coding for enzyme with differing amounts of residual activity are the primary cause of this variation, and a moderate amount of residual activity can lead to near normal cutaneous pigmentation and the mistaken diagnosis of ocular albinism. Ethnic and family pigment patterns influence the pigmentation of an individual with OCA1B, and hair color can be light red or brown in some families where this is the predominant pigment pattern. [....]All variations of OCA1B are characterized by having very little or no pigment present at birth followed by the development of varying amounts of melanin in the hair and the skin in the first or second decade. In some cases, the melanin develops within the first year. The hair color changes to light yellow, light blond or golden blond first, and may eventually turn dark blond or brown in the adolescent and the adult. ....Many individuals with OCA1B will tan with sun exposure while it is more common to burn without tanning after sun exposure. Pigmented nevi can develop with time, although most developing nevi are amelanotic. Very few freckles develop."

To see these quotes at the IAC site, look here.

hair structure -- Hairs from several albino Dobermans were compared by a veterinary expert to hairs from normal black, red, and blue dobermans, as well as hairs from complete albino cats and white whippets. These comparisons, performed by Dr. David Prieur, determined that melanin pigment granules (melanosomes) are severely reduced in both number and in pigment content in the albino Dobermans, as compared to normal Dobermans. In addition, the melanosomes which do exist are significantly enlarged, shaped abnormally, and distributed unevenly. The albino Doberman hair shafts are distorted, and the diameter of the hairs is variable. In some ways these findings are similar to the hairs of blue and fawn dogs, whose hair also contains enlarged and abnormally distributed melanosomes. However, the albinos that were examined were NOT genetically dilute animals (they all carried B and D alleles, and were probably BBDD animals), and the albinos had a severe reduction in number and pigment content of the melanosomes, while melanosomes in blue and fawn dobermans are numerous and have normal pigment content. In contrast, the white whippet hairs (the result of an extreme spotting trait) had NO melanosomes, smooth hair shafts, and a constant hair diameter; and the complete albino cat hairs had large numbers of melanosomes which contained no pigment, also with smooth hair shafts of constant diameter.

Several albinistic syndromes, such as Griscelli syndrome and Chediak-Higashi syndrome, are known to involve abnormal melanosomes in several different species (Chediak-Higashi syndrome, for instance, strikes humans, mice, cattle, mink, and cats amongst others). Therefore, these findings are not entirely unexpected. In fact, these findings suggest that albino Dobermans may possibly suffer from OCA2-type albinism see the "what is albinism" section above.

For more specific information on the ultrastructural examination of Doberman hairs, look here: "The Question of 'White'", written by M. Diane Garrard, in the Summer 1987 issue of Doberman Quarterly, pp. 1-22.
For more specific information on various albinistic syndromes, including Griscelli syndrome and Chediak-Higashi syndrome, look here.
For studies authored or co-authored by Dr. Prieur, look here.
For more specific information on albinistic syndromes involving melanosomal abnormalities, look here.

blue eyes --  Even many complete albinos have blue eyes. For instance, the NOAH albinism site states "A common myth is that by definition people with albinism have red eyes. In fact there are different types of albinism, and the amount of pigment in the eyes varies. Although some individuals with albinism have reddish or violet eyes, most have blue eyes. Some have hazel or brown eyes." see the quote here.
Also, the International Albinism Center states "Iris color is usually blue/gray or light brown.... It is a common notion that people with albinism must have red eyes, but in fact the color of the iris varies from a dull gray to blue to brown. "  see the quote here.

Eyes which appear blue can be produced without pigment because of the phenomenon of refraction. It's important to remember that the structure of the iris often has more effect on the apparent color of the eye than the absence of pigment itself. Think of the sky. Is there any blue pigment in the sky? No, of course not. So why does the sky look blue? It looks blue because the dust particles in the sky refract (scatter) light in a specific way, and light of different wavelengths is refracted differently. The structure of the iris in some species allows absorption, refraction, and filtering of the light that hits it, so that the eye may appear blue even when there is no pigment in the iris.

As stated by Dr. Mark Ladd, a veterinary geneticist: "The iris colour in an adult dog is determined by two layers. An inner layer, which gives rise to the blue eyes present in all puppies just after birth, is not pigmented; the blue colour arises because of an absorption of the longer wavelengths of white light before reflection back...The outer layer gives rise to the dark eye as it becomes pigmented from melanin production in the eye....Albinism means the complete absence of melanin pigment (Searle, 1981).If one accepts this view, then dogs such as the white Dobermanns, with blue eyes, can be termed albinos." In fact, blue-eyed albino mutations are known to occur in several different species. As stated by William Oetting (a widely-known expert in albinism from the University of Minnesota), "The blue eyes is consistent with albinism. Dogs have an iris which is blue if it contains no pigment (same as the Siamese cat, for example, which also has a type of albinism). Animals with little or no iris (mouse, rat) have pink eyes."

Additionally, as mentioned above albinos can even have BROWN eyes -- and the color of an albino's eyes can change over time. To repeat a quote already mentioned in a previous section, from the International Albinism Center: "An important distinguishing characteristic of OCA1 is the presence of marked hypopigmentation at birth. Most individuals affected with a type of OCA1 have white hair, milky white skin, and blue eyes at birth. The irides can be very light blue and translucent such that the whole iris appears pink or red in ambient or bright light. During the first and second decade of life, the irides usually become a darker blue and may remain translucent or become lightly pigmented with reduced translucency. " see the quote here. Interestingly, at least one albino doberman is known to have been born with blue eyes and has developed gold eyes along with darker fur pigment during his second year of life. see his photos here.

Blue-eyed albino cats are mentioned here,here, and here.
Blue-eyed albino rabbits are mentioned here.
Blue-eyed albino horses are mentioned here and here.
For Dr. Oetting's complete statement and some of the papers he has authored or co-authored relating to albinism, look here.
For studies authored or co-authored by Dr. Ladd, look here.

reproduction -- Believe it or not, a few people insist that "white" dobermans can not be albino, because they believe that albinos can't reproduce! Contrary to this odd claim, however, albino animals in general are perfectly capable of making babies. Albino rats, albino mice, albino rabbits, albino ferrets, albino squirrels, and so on reproduce quite well. To verify this fact, all you have to do is go to your local pet store and look at the pregnant white mice that you will probably find there.

conclusions -- All current evidence supports the conclusion that "white" Dobermans are indeed suffering from some type of albinism. Like other "tyrosinase-positive" or "partial" albinos, they have a diffuse loss of pigmentation in the fur and may accumulate pigment with age. Like other albinos, they have unpigmented skin and eyes. Like other albinos, the trait is inherited as a simple recessive trait. Like several other types of albinism, they appear to have abnormal melanosomes. In fact, nationally recognized geneticists agree that these dogs are albino. Several experts in genetics, albinism, pathology, and ophthalmology have agreed that these dogs appear to be albinos, including G.A. Padgett, D.F. Patterson, M.F.C. Ladd, W.S. Oetting, J.P. Scott, and David Prieur. Interestingly, not a single expert in any of these fields has reached any other conclusion.

Dr. Oetting has stated "It sounds as if the dogs do indeed have albinism. ....These dogs sound like they have OCA1 resulting from mutations of the tyrosinase gene, a major gene in pigment formation."

G.A. Padgett, DVM, Professor of Pathology, has stated "I would agree with Dr. Patterson's suggestions (1982) that this is probably a mutation in the C series. I believe it is an albino, although not the classical pink-eyed tyrosine negative animal which we associate with this term. They are phototypic, and I believe there is little disagreement with this statement". Dr. Padgett also lists albino dobermans as partial albinos in his book Control of Canine Genetic Diseases.

David J. Prieur, DVM, PhD, of the WSU Dept. of Veterinary Microbiology and Pathology, has stated "Several years ago I expressed my concern regarding the breeding of 'white' Doberman Pinscher dogs. I expressed the opinion that the gene for the white coat was a deleterious gene and that the Doberman Pinscher breed would be better served by not incorporating this gene into the gene pool of the breed. Although these 'white' Dobermans have been shown not to be true albinos, they are tyrosinase-positive albinoids with a severe reduction of melanin in oculocutaneous structures.There have been numerous defects described in animals of other species with genes of this type.....I am unaware of any information, published or presented, since I originally expressed my concerns, which would lead me to believe that this gene is not deleterious."

Dr.M.F.C. Ladd, a British veterinary geneticist, has stated "Albinism means the complete absence of melanin pigment (Searle, 1981). If one accepts this view, then dogs such as the white Dobermanns, with blue eyes, can be termed albinos.....Unless much more evidence is forthcoming, I feel that the white Dobermann should be looked upon as an abnormality, known to exist and hoped to be avoided."

And J.P. Scott, PhD, a geneticist at Bowling Green State University, has stated: "Photophobia would constitute somewhat of a handicap to a working dog"; and "Something must be done. I realize that most breeders are responsible, selecting strains that seem good. But once an undesirable trait enters a breed, it is not an easy thing to eliminate".

So why hasn't anyone isolated the specific gene responsible for albinism in Dobermans? As stated by Dr. Oetting, "We do not test dogs because genes involved in pigment formation (and therefore albinism) have not been isolated. ....To my knowledge, no lab has isolated the canine genes homologous to the human pigment genes so the gene analysis is not possible at this time." Nonetheless, all the currently available evidence supports the conclusion -- "white" Dobermans are indeed albinos. If anyone has evidence to the contrary, please let me know!

For Dr. Oetting's complete statement and some of the papers he has authored or co-authored relating to albinism, look here.
For more specific information on the scientific conclusions relating to albino Dobermans and expert opinions, look here: "The Question of 'White'", written by M. Diane Garrard, in the Summer 1987 issue of Doberman Quarterly, pp. 1-22.
For studies authored or co-authored by Dr. Padgett, look here. note: this link is not yet available -- please check back!
For studies authored or co-authored by Dr. Patterson, look here.
For studies authored or co-authored by Dr. Ladd, look here. note: this link is not yet available -- please check back!
For studies authored or co-authored by Dr. Scott, look here. note: this link is not yet available -- please check back!
For studies authored or co-authored by Dr. Prieur, look here.

No, "albino" isn't just a color. As described above, albinism is the absence of normal coloration. And as we'll see in the behavior and health sections below, the condition of albinism can affect much much more than just the color of an animal's fur.

Some people think that albinism is just like other colors or color mutations, such as the dilution trait which produces blue or fawn Dobermans, or the merle trait which produces merle collies. But it isn't.

Dilution: Aren't albino Dobermans just like the blue or fawn Dobermans? People used to discriminate against them too, right?

No, albinism is not the same as the blue and fawn colors.

The blue and fawn traits are caused by a dilution trait. Blue is a dilute form of black, and fawn is a dilute form of red. This dilution trait can also cause a condition known as Color Dilution Alopecia (CDA), which causes many blue and fawn dogs to lose fur. This condition affects dogs in several different breeds. Dogs with CDA are otherwise normal, and they can live long healthy lives despite their missing fur.

For more specific information on CDA, look here and here.

Because of the CDA condition, many breeders avoid producing the dilute colors. However, it is a myth that it took many years for blues to be accepted, or that blues and fawns have always been persecuted throughout the Doberman community.

The very first standard for the Doberman pinscher was written in 1899, in Germany. Blue Dobermans were actually added to that standard in 1901, only two years after the first standard. In fact, blue Dobermans were added to the standard at the same time as reds. Fawns have been recorded in the breed since 1912, only 13 years after the first standard was written. In the United States, fawns have been accepted in the breed standard since 1969 -- more than thirty years ago. Blues have a long history of success in the breed ring, and both blues and fawns have had many supporters through the years. In fact, in the years before the first World War blues were said to be of better quality than blacks!

For more specific information on the history of blue and fawn Dobermans in the breed, look here.

Merle: Isn't albinism just like the merle trait? It can make dogs white, right?

It is true that the merle trait is sublethal in its homozygous state  (homozygous = two copies of the "merle" gene). Its phenotype (external appearance) is near white and is often accompanied by deafness, blindness, and other serious health problems. Because of these health problems, some people try to compare the merle trait with albinism. However, albinism is a recessive trait, while the merle mutation is an incomplete dominant trait. This means that a dog who is heterozygous for the merle trait (heterozygous = one copy of the "merle" gene, and one copy of the "normal" gene) will appear merled, but will probably have none of the health complications of the trait. Therefore, it is possible to preserve the desirable merle color without producing homozygous animals, simply by breeding heterozygotes (merles) to normal dogs.

For more information on the inheritance of the merle trait, look here and here.

In contrast to the merle trait, albinism appears phenotypically only in homozygous animals. The heterozygotes (carriers) will not have the "desirable" albino appearance. Unlike the merle trait, albinistic appearance AND the adverse effects both occur only in the homozygous animals. Therefore, it is impossible to preserve the "desirable" appearance while still avoiding the adverse effects associated with the albinism trait.

For more information on the inheritance of the albino trait, see the "albino trait inheritance" section above.

Spotting: Isn't the "white" trait in Dobermans actually passed down from white greyhounds?

As many people know, greyhounds were one of the breeds used in the creation of the Doberman pinscher. This has led some albino breeders to claim that albino Dobermans are actually just expressing a white trait inherited from greyhounds. However, this is not the case, and is not even possible -- which these breeders would understand, if they just knew a little bit about genetics.

"White" in greyhounds is actually an extreme expression of a spotting (also called "piebald") trait. Thus, there are spotted greyhounds as well as "white" greyhounds; and most "white" greyhounds actually have some spotted areas in their skin or fur. On the other hand, albino Dobermans have a diffuse loss of pigment over the entire body, without strongly pigmented areas. Further, as discussed in the "are white dobermans really albino" section above, the hair structure of albino dobermans is completely different from the structure of hairs found in spotted animals.

Also, it is sometimes claimed that the occasional white spots which appear on the chest or toes of normal Dobermans are remnants of the spotting trait from greyhounds. However, animals with these spots are actually genetically SS (solid, without the spotting trait), and the small white areas are simply caused by polygenic modifiers to the coat color, which affect the migration of pigmented cells.

For a detailed description of spotting traits in dogs, look here.

Finally -- if albino Dobermans were actually expressing the extreme spotting trait of greyhounds, then a breeding of a "white" doberman to a normal Doberman should produced spotted offspring. But it doesn't, of course, because albinism is actually a completely different trait than greyhound spotting.

For more specific information on the genetics of the spotting trait in greyhounds, look here.

Spotting: Isn't the "white" trait in Dobermans just the same as "white" in boxers or dalmatians?

No. As with greyhounds, white boxers and dalmatians actually carry an extreme spotting (also called "piebald") trait. Even "white"  boxers and "white" dalmatians will usually have small areas of pigment in their fur or skin. These animals will also often have pigmented eyes. However, extreme spotting IS a problem in both boxers and dalmatians, because many of the "white" dogs are deaf. They may also have serious visual problems.

It is also important to remember that extreme spotting in boxers and dalmatians appears as a result of the desired appearances of the breeds. Dalmatians, for instance, must be spotted to meet the standard. Therefore, they all carry the spotting trait. In boxers, "flashy" animals -- those with a relatively large amount of white -- are favored in the show ring. And this flashy pattern is produced by animals who carry the boxer version of the spotting or piebald trait. In fact, approximately 25% of the offspring of two flashy boxers will be born white. In stark contrast, there is nothing desirable about any white areas or pale coloration in the Doberman breed (even in blue and fawn Dobermans, darker colors are more desirable).

As an additional note: an albino Doberman bitch was bred (accidentally) by a white boxer. The resultant pups were all red with black masks and white markings. If albinism in Dobermans were the same trait as white in boxers, the pups should all have been white! See photos of the parents and pups here.

For more specific information on white boxers, look here and here.
For interesting discussions on the genetics of spotting and congenital deafness in dogs, look  here.
For more information on spotting traits in several breeds, look here and here.
For a good discussion on the ways in which white is obtained in dog breeds, look here.

Dark-eyed White: Isn't the "white" trait in Dobermans just the same as white German shepherds?

No. Unlike albino Dobermans, white German shepherds (GSDs) have pigmented eyes and skin (including noses, pads, and sometimes belly). This may be due to the "dark-eyed white" mutation (I have no specific evidence to back up my assumption, but if I find any data I'll post it here). Also, white GSDs have occurred in the breed for more than 100 years. Albino Dobermans, on the other hand, first appeared in 1976.

For more specific information on the history of white GSDs, look here and here.
For more specific information on the inheritance of coat color in GSDs, look here.

Who do you think you are to decide what color a Doberman should be?

The Doberman Pinscher Club of America (DPCA) is the parent club for the Doberman pinscher in America, and it sets the standard for the AKC Doberman. While many elements of a breed's standard may seem arbitrary, the standards are designed to protect the health and integrity of the breed. And, as can be seen throughout this document, there are many good reasons for refusing to accept albinism into the Doberman standard. The DPCA has therefore determined that albinism in Dobermans will be considered a disqualification in the show ring, and many DPCA members support efforts to restrict or deny AKC registration of any albino or albino-factored animals see the "What is the DPCA doing" section below for more specific information. If the members of the White Doberman Club (now known as Doberman Pinscher Association of America) don't like the DPCA standard, and wish to ignore the health problems they perpetuate by breeding their dogs, they are free to create their own breed and set their own standards.

For more specific information on the AKC standard for Doberman pinschers, look here.

Albinism is occasionally reported in other dog breeds -- including pekingese, Saint Bernards, samoyeds, pugs, and pomeranians. The information I've seen suggests that these dogs are also off-white/cream in color with blue eyes, as are the Dobermans.

Here are comments and photos from a few owners of albino dogs from other breeds. I'll add more as I find them, so please check back!

Albinism in Pekingese

Albinism is sometimes found in Pekingese dogs. Here's a statement and photos from the owners of one albino peke.

"Hi, I'm Cool Vanilla Frosty. I am a seven year old Albino Pekingese male. I have a pink nose, pale blue eyes, and white hair with a little cream color....."

You can see pictures of Frosty here

Albinism in Samoyeds

Albinism is also reported, rarely, in Samoyeds. One experienced AKC Samoyed judge reports that she has seen three albino sammies during her career in the breed. Here are photos and comments from one owner.

"My dog has absolutely no pigment anywhere on her body.  Her eyes are a very pale blue with pink pupils.  She is also a Dwarf (although it's not that  noticeable).  Her legs are just a little shorter than they should be.  I got her when she was 5 months old and she had been abused by someone who didn't know she couldn't see in bright sunlight.  She had been dumped at a shelter in the night drop.  The shelter had her labeled as deaf, but her interest in stuffy toys quickly dispelled that notion!  It took me the better part of the summer to get her comfortable wearing a harness and leash.  One day the harness was too tight, so I told her she had to wear a "big girl" collar (a nylon training collar) and off we went.  So far, knock on wood, she's had no health issues.  She has learned to trust and I think the companionship of ...a male Samoyed she adores who adores her, has really helped her.  She doesn't really speak "dog" (I think due to her poor eyesight) but she and he have worked out a language for themselves.  She will be 3 years old in November. Her fur is very white, but she does have some more creamy fur on her back.   Samoyeds have a double coat and the coat textures are very  different.  The undercoat is soft, downy wool.  The outer coat is a harsher texture to protect the dog from the elements.  The outer coat is what is the creamer color but the difference in color is slight. Yes, she can get sunburned, especially on her little pink nose.  I  have a visor for her and put sunscreen on her nose when she's outside.  She comes and goes to the backyard as she pleases through the doggy door.  Her skin is very sensitive.  I've finally given up trying to keep her groomed in typical Samoyed fashion which is completely natural except for clipping the fur on their feet.  We've had her fur clipped - not short though - just short enough that she's easy to brush without pulling.  We're both a lot happier that way! She did have fear problems when I first got her.  She was afraid of anything new and different.  She was very fearful of being "hurt". Those issues have been resolved.  Now she's a very happy little dog. She doesn't really squint and my evaluation of her vision is really just based on my vet's exam of her eyes which showed some abnormalities, the Albinoism, i.e., the very light-colored eyes, and the fact that she misses the body language cues that the other dogs give her.  She just doesn't "get" it when they are trying to initiate play, telling her to back off, etc. ....The Samoyed heritage is a working dog that pulled sleds,  herded reindeer, and lived with the family as a companion in the Western Area of Siberia.  The climate is very harsh, and an Albino Sammy would not have been able to survive in that environment.  All of the Samoyeds in this country share 12 ancestors that were imported.  Breeders shouldn't be breeding dogs that have that recessive gene - but some breeders don't care about anything but money."

You can see pictures of Ally here

Another owner of an albino samoyed reports: "We have an Albino Samoyed.  He is 9 months old and a very beautiful animal.  His eyes are whitsh(pinkish) with light blue rims around the pupil and iris.  The pupil is red.  Our Sammie's nose and gums, both, are a salmon pink color." " he seems sensitive to sunlight, only by either squinting or closing his eyes...no sun burn as of yet..."
 
 

Albinism in Chihuahuas

I was alerted to the birth, at the beginning of January 2001, of an apparently albino chihuahua. Her eyes had just opened when I heard from the breeder, and they were apparently pink. Another person contacted me in February of 2003 about a year old albino bitch with blue-rimmed red eyes. If I hear more about these or other chihuahuas, I'll post it here.
 
 

Albinism in Pugs

One albino pug, named Babe, went through a pug rescue group several years ago. At that time, this is what they reported: "Babe came into Southeast Pug Rescue after being in an adoptive home (through another rescue group) since February 1996. She is estimated to be about 2 years old and is spayed and came from a puppy mill. She is accustomed to living out of doors in a cage. She arrived in our group with a sunburned nose, severe flea allergy with accompanying scratch/itch cycle and is currently under treatment of all of this.  Due to her albinoism, she is a special needs pug. She is reluctant to go out of doors in bright light which can present what seems to be a house breaking problem. She is easily sunburned and wears sunscreen at all times. She shows some retinal atrophy which the vet attributes to the structure of the albino eye. We are closely watching this condition as well as the possible need for entropion surgery in the near future. She is also afraid of the dark, a fear which we are working on. "

You can see pictures of Babe here ; the original information about Babe can be found here.

Albinism in Mixed breed dogs

Albinism is also occasionally reported in mixed breed dogs. Here's a statement and photo from a woman who owns what appears to be an albino mixed breed.

"I have a mixed breed who is for all intents and purposes, albino.  Pure white, pink skin, no color, and very light blue eyes. He is truly without pigment....His pupils are reddish....I've had him since he was about 10 wks. old, when he was found dumped in the AZ desert.  He is now about 2-1/2 yrs.  His health appears good, but his personality is a bit...off(?)  He is good with me and my children, but can be really squirrely at times; skittish and fearful.  This is why I had thought he might by a coyote mix, but it might be the albinism.....His coloring is pretty much like the Dobie on your site- pure white, pink nose, pink eye rims, etc.  with the same light blue eyes.....these pics didn't turn out well at all.  He is quite camera shy, and of course, squints so badly outdoors ::sigh::  "

You can see pictures of Zuul here

There is no dog breed in which albinism is considered to be desirable. In fact, albinism is a disqualification in many dog breeds. In some breeds albinism is specifically identified and disqualified. In others, it is effectively disqualified because of requirements for or disqualifications of specific skin, eye, or fur colors or markings (it seems especially common to disqualify blue eyes, for example). A few examples of each of these types of disqualification are listed below. This should NOT be considered a complete list, but just an illustration of the widespread rejection of albinism in dogs.
 

Incidentally, conditions characteristic of albinism are also sometimes disqualified in horses, such as appaloosas and American Quarter horses. For instance, until very recently Rule 227(j) of the AQHA standards stated "No horse is eligible for registration which possesses all three characteristics which designate a horse commonly known as an albino: light (or pink) skin over the body; white or cream colored hair over the body; and eyes of a blueish cast". (Note that this rule has now been amended, with the word "albino" removed. It now reads: "(g) No horse is eligible for registration which possesses markings or condition characteristics of a Paint, Pinto, Appaloosa, or cremello, whether or not such markings or condition is, or could be, the result of inherited traits....(i) No horse is eligible for registration which possesses all three characteristics: light (or pink) skin over the body; white or cream-colored hair over the body; and eyes of a bluish cast.'')  See the quote at the AQHA Rulebook, here

For a copy of appaloosa standards in Canada, look here.

In other words, it is very common for responsible breeders to avoid producing the traits which are characteristic of albinism.

The albino trait produces many deleterious changes besides just pale fur. All albinos have changes in their eyes and optic nerves related to their albinism. At least some types of albinism are known to cause several types of behavioral changes, as well as decreased intelligence. For instance, albinos of some species may be excessively emotional, or slow to learn new tasks, or especially fearful, or have a multitude of other behavioral problems.

For more specific information on some behavioral effects of albinism, look here.

Unfortunately, no controlled behavioral research has been performed specifically on albino Dobermans, as of the present time. So, despite many reports of severe fearful and/or aggressive behavior in albinistic Dobermans, we can't prove (yet) that these behavioral problems afflict the albino Doberman in particular. However, there is also no reason to suspect that behaviors associated with albinism in other species will be any different in the Doberman than in those other species. In particular, it appears that albino Dobermans often lack behavioral adaptability -- that is, they may behave normally in familiar surroundings and with familiar people and animals, but may adapt very poorly and become fearful around strange surroundings, strange animals, or strange people.

For more specific information on behavioral traits reported by owners of albino dobermans, look here.

It also seems evident from performance competitions that albinism does affect normal behavior in the albinistic Doberman. It appears that albinistic Dobermans are unable to perform at the level of normal Dobermans. Only fouralbinistic Dobermans have obtained any AKC-sanctioned performance titles, and even these have been only the most basic titles -- three CD (Companion Dog) titles, and one NAJ (Novice Agility, Jumpers) title. No albinistic Dobermans have obtained ANY advanced performance title. There were 10,402 AKC obedience titles earned by Dobermans between 1980 and 1995. This includes CDs, but does not include agility, schutzhund, flyball, or any other non-AKC working titles. In that same time, 620,074 Dobermans were registered. From these numbers we can calculate that there are approximately 1.7 AKC-sanctioned obedience titles earned for every hundred Dobermans registered in the United States. In comparison,  roughly 1200 albinistic Dobermans have been registered by the AKC since 1979 (roughly 5500 albino-factored dogs were registered during the same period). If albinistic Dobermans obtained performance titles at the same rate as normal Dobermans, there would be approximately TWENTY albinistic Dobermans with AKC obedience titles alone. This doesnât even consider the many additional agility, flyball, schutzhund, ring sport, tracking, herding, carting titles, SAR certifications, etc., that they should have. But there are only four AKC titles earned by ANY albino doberman, and these are only the CDs and NAJ. It appears pretty obvious from this overall lack of titles that albinistic dogs are either incapable of gaining the titles, or their owners aren't interested enough in their own dogs to work with them.

For more specific information on the obedience title statistics I've just mentioned, look here.
For more information on the numbers of albino Dobermans in the US, look here.
For information on a reward offered for albino dobermans earning advanced performance titles, look here.
 
 

General health -- The albinistic syndrome may be accompanied by a wide range of health problems. Some types of albinism affect the immune system, liver, or clotting ability, and others may cause other physiological abnormalities such as defects of the kidneys or thymus, anemia, inner ear defects, megacolon, neurological abnormalities, skeletal defects, microphthalmia, osteopetrosis, spina bifida, and sterility, just to name a few. Albinism in general predisposes animals to skin cancer as well as photosensitivity/photophobia. In some species, some types of albinism are even lethal! So it is easy to see that albinism is NOT just a matter of pigment, it's a deleterious mutation which affects the whole body.

Unfortunately, these health problems have not yet been studied in a controlled manner in the albino Doberman. However, as with the behavioral effects of albinism, there is no reason to suspect that the health effects of albinism will be any different in Dobermans than in other species. For instance, I know of at least one albinistic Doberman who suffered from severe progressive neurological problems, and was eventually euthanized for them. I know of another albino who suffered from megaesophagus, another neurological abnormality. Also, many owners of albino Dobermans have reported that their dogs squint in bright light, have poor vision, and are unable to remain in the sun for any significant length of time without burning. Several albino Dobermans have been reported with skin cancers. And, as discussed elsewhere, one of the best-known albino stud dogs died with malignant melanoma, at less than six years of age.

For more specific information on skin cancers in albinism, look here.
For more specific information on other deleterious health effects associated with many types of albinism, look here.
For more specific information on a few lethal albino mutations, look here, and here, and here.
For more specific information on auditory abnormalities associated with albinism, look here.

Vision -- Albinism always affects vision. As mentioned in the "what is albinism" section, the official term for most types of albinism is "oculocutaneous albinism". It is called that because the albinism effects both skin AND eyes. As the NOAH site states, "People with albinism always have problems with vision, and many have low vision. Many are 'legally blind'...Vision problems in albinism result from abnormal development of the retina" (the "fovea", which is normally the part of the retina responsible for the clearest vision, is underdeveloped because of the lack of pigment), "and abnormal patterns of nerve connections between the eye and the brain" (the optic nerves are misrouted at the point where they would normally cross over). "It is the presence of these eye problems that defines the diagnosis of albinism. Therefore the main test for albinism is simply an eye exam." see the quote here. Note that this does not mean simply shining a light in the eyes, but may involve electrophysiological recordings and other specialized testing which, in dogs, will probably require anesthesia to complete. These tests have not yet been performed in albino Dobermans, to the best of my knowledge.

Also note that the CERF eye examination, commonly used to detect congenital ocular defects in dogs, will not detect several of the visual problems associated with albinism. Vision problems experienced by albinos (human or non-human) may include nystagmus (rapid back-and-forth movement of the eyes), strabismus (crossed eyes, wandering eye, "lazy" eye, "wall" eye), photosensitivity/photophobia, either hyperopia (far-sightedness) or myopia (near-sightedness), and/or astigmatism (blurred vision), as well as a loss of depth perception caused by the abnormalities in the optic nerves. These problems can been seen in both "complete" and "partial" albinos (for instance, Siamese cats often have crossed eyes and/or other vision abnormalities, and "white" tigers also often have crossed eyes). Obviously, visual deficits would be a serious handicap for a working breed of dog. Also, the poor vision suffered by albinos may be a partial explanation for the aggressive and/or fearful behaviors often reported in albino Dobermans. There have been multiple reports of photosensitivity/photophobia from owners of albinistic Dobermans, as well as reports of extreme nearsightedness (such as an inability to recognize family members from across a room and inability to chase balls) and severe lack of depth perception (such as difficulty climbing stairs or problems with falling off of a porch). Photophobia in these dogs was also confirmed by ophthalmologic exam, as reported in the Summer 1987 issue of Doberman Quarterly. Unfortunately, as has been confirmed by CERF officials, CERF certification exams will not detect far-sightedness, near-sightedness, astigmatism, photophobia, or depth-perception deficits, or the optic-nerve abnormalities caused by albinism.

For more specific information on ocular changes in albinism, look here and here.
For more specific information on the ophthalmologic exam performed, look here: "The Question of 'White'", written by M. Diane Garrard, in the Summer 1987 issue of Doberman Quarterly, pp. 1-22.
For a copy of the private email from a CERF official confirming the limitations of CERF examination, please contact me.
For more specific information on vision-related behavioral traits reported by owners of albino dobermans, look here.

Longevity -- The oldest albinistic Dobermans for which I have any verifiable records are three dogs who have reached eight years of age (two alive and one dead), three living nine year olds, one who is alive at ten, and one trustworthy report of another dog who died at 10 years of age (please let me know if I've missed any). In contrast, it is easy to find normal Dobermans living 12, 14, or even occasionally as long as 17 years. In fact, as I mentioned above, a widely used albinistic stud dog -- Duke, the first albinistic Doberman to complete the WDCâs ãhealth evaluationä certification program -- died in October of 1999, at five years of age. Of skin cancer. (Interestingly, the dead 10 year old I know of -- one of the early albinos back in the 1980's -- also died of skin cancer.) Another well-known albino stud, Thunderidges King of Diamonds (Yoda), died at six years of age in November of 2000.

see notices of Duke's and Yoda's deaths here

Recently, the White Doberman Club (WDC) has initiated a Longevity Program similar to that run by the Doberman Pinscher Club of America (DPCA). However, the WDC has elected to award Longevity Certificates to any dog who reaches seven years of age -- while the DPCA awards its certificates only to dogs reaching TEN years or older. The difference in age requirements raises an interesting question: why is it necessary? Has the WDC not been able to find albino dogs living long enough to meet the ten year cutoff?

the WDC Longevity Program page can be found herenote: as of 4/28/01 this page contains a "parse error" which prevents it from being read properly -- please check back to see whether it is corrected by the WDC at a later date!
the DPCA Longevity Program page can be found here